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    abstract and a mental model needs to be created in order
    to properly parse the information. Due to this, people are
    often better at performing an action properly than teachinganother to do so. Therefore, if we find methods by which
    to take teacher performance and apply it directly to students
    motor learning systems, we may avoid the pitfalls normally
    associated with teaching skills to another.
    The goal of this system is to become a low latency, full-
    time, highly parallel robotic motor skills teacher that can
    provide constant motor-system feedback to the student as he
    or she attempts to learn new motor skills.
    B. Project Scope and Overview
    The feedback system consists of four main modules
    shown in Fig. 1. The first module shows the teacher and
    student. The teacher performs a movement that the student
    tries to mimic. Their performance is tracked optically by
    a Vicon motion capture system. Results from tracking are
    fed into our software that compares the performance of
    the student and teacher to generate feedback commands for
    the student. These feedback signals are then sent to the
    wearable vibrotactile feedback suit, worn by the student.
    Joints moving in error will receive vibrations proportional to
    the amount of error. When the student’s body is in the right
    position feedback is zero. Direct tactile feedback indicates
    the discrepancy, wherever the student’s body is different
    than the teacher’s. The rationale and implementation of this
    system are presented next.II. MOTOR LEARNING
    A. Motor Learning, Feedback, and Touch
    Feedback is crucial to perform motor skills well [2], [3].
    Performance is improved by both the specificity of feedback,
    and its immediacy [4]. No other independent variable is
    thought to affect one’s performance as much as immediate
    feedback.
    The skin is sensitive to many qualities of touch [5]. Skin
    is specifically responsive to frequencies of roughly 250 Hz.
    Vibrotactile actuator size influences frequency sensitivity.
    Other factors such as low frequency oscillation (LFO) en-
    velopes, sequences, and our adaptation to touch impulses,
    are discussed at length in [5].We utilize an effect known as the ‘cutaneous rabbit’, more
    formally known as sensory saltation [6]. A sequence of
    properly spaced and timed tactile pulses will be processed as
    if distributed “with more or less uniform spacing, from the
    region of the first contactor to that of the [last].” This allows
    us to utilize vibrotactile actuators as a means to directly com-
    municate errors of joint angles. In addition, superimposing
    saltative sequences can communicate rotational errors.
    B. Previous work: Virtual Reality Training and other Tactile
    Inventions
    Virtual reality (VR) environments have been shown to
    improve motor learning by providing augmented feedback.
    Often VR displays overlay the student’s performance with
    the desired movement, that provides an “intuitive and inter-
    pretable form... sharing the same spatial frame of reference
    [7].”
    VR environments are useful because they emphasize the
    differences between the subject and reference movements
    and highlight desired trajectories in an understandable frame
    [9]. In some complex tasks, VR training actually exceeds
    training from a human expert [8]. VR training at times shows
    more robustness to cognitive interference phenomena, such
    as performing a task while being distracted with unrelated
    behaviors [10]. Furthermore, VR training may be retained
    longer than regular training [11].
    Tactile actuators were originally developed for sensory
    substitution, rather than for sensory augmentation. Prior
    works have used tactile actuators to transmit speech infor-
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